Geography.
.

Tactile maps use raised and depressed surfaces, as well as a variety of textures, to indicate geographic features and boundaries. In the latter part of the 18th century, R. Weisenberg, a man who was blind from Mannheim, Germany, “experimented with maps made tangible by the application of various materials, such as pieces of glass and water” and later silk threads of various dimensions, but these proved to be impractical or to tear too easily. (Coon, 1956) Guillié in France, in 1819, was the first to record instructions that called for the use of pasted wire not only in maps but also planispheres and globes. Still, prior to the 1830s tactile maps were usually custom-made for a few individuals who were blind.

Samuel Gridley Howe had traveled extensively and brought a keen sense that his students would need to understand geography in order to function in a modern world. In 1837, Howe commissioned Stephen Preston Ruggles to make the large tactile Globe on display. In concept and size this globe is a minor milestone in map-making with its 13-foot circumference and construction from over 600 pieces of wood. (Coon, 1956). Ruggles also made several tactile maps made of carved wood and a variety of additional materials. Howe was among the first to develop methods that allowed for the production of tactile maps in quantity. Perkins embossed paper maps that were published as atlases in the 1830s.

Later in the 19th century relief maps were made for the general public, and these were also employed in schools for the blind. Excellent productions of such embossed maps are extant for the period 1840-50, notably those made in Vienna and Paris. Martin Kunz of Germany and Harald Thilander of Sweden both produced tactile maps that were used in schools for the blind in Europe and the United States. These paper maps were embossed in map molds. They had raised areas to indicate landmass, lines and textures to indicate bodies of water and used braille for labels.

During the Depression (1936-1938), a WPA project at Perkins prepared embossed maps in loose-leaf form to parallel the best atlases, and 350 titles were completed. This was the first complete embossed historical atlas ever attempted. (Coon, 1956)

The American Printing House (APH) produced hand-carved tactile maps in wood from 1875 until about 1950. Later plastic replaced wood. Embossed paper maps were also produced at APH.

Research in tactile perception has lead to many innovations in the production of maps for students who are blind including standard symbols, attention to size and level of detail. Developments in plastic-forming processes and electronics have influenced the production of maps and globes leading to innovations such as overlays for diagrams and talking globes.

Suggested citation for scholars:

McGinnity, B.L., Seymour-Ford, J. and Andries, K.J. (2004) Geography. Perkins History Museum, Perkins School for the Blind, Watertown, MA.